<> stream [18] In a letter to Arnold Ruge, written March 1843,[19] Marx What I think he is forcing us to confront here is the idea that emancipation must happen at the level of both the state and civil society (the market is contained within here) simultaneously. Marx connects this problematic to the contradiction which exists between the effective political power of the Jew and his political rights (On the Jewish Question, 51), a contradiction mediated by the marketplace of civil society. : The 'Final When his friends asked him how he came to pick 48, he said, It was a combination of seichel (brains) and mazel (luck)., He explained: I always knew seven was a lucky number. [22], David McLellan, however, has argued that "On the Jewish Question" must be understood in terms of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer over the nature of political emancipation in Germany. The whole essay was republished in October 1890 in the Berliner Volksblatt, then edited by Wilhelm Liebknecht. It is interesting that the political economy approach is usually opposed to these kinds of immanent critiques of human rights and liberalism. forms: { Im called uponsometimes publicly, sometimes on social media platformsto comment on such matters, and criticized when I hesitate to do so (although God only knows why I would hesitate :). Whats interesting about this text is that it is a discussion of the state and the citizen (seemingly) on their own terms. It is precisely not the type of political economic reduction of the question of politics to, say, class rule. In the text On The Jewish Question (1843) Marx begins to make clear the distance between himself and his radical liberal colleagues among the Young Hegelians; in particular Bruno Bauer. Bruno Bauer: Die Fhigkeit der heutigen Juden und Christen, frei zu werden (The Capacity of Present-day Jews and Christians to Become Free), in: Lewis, Bernard (1999). It was discussed in Germany in 1843 via Bruno Bauer's treatise Die Judenfrage ("The Jewish Question"). So then, holding on to the debased categories: what would a real humanism be? Jews priviliege others Jews with access to power, money, and positions to perpetuate Jewish influence in America. From December 1843 to October 1844, Bruno Bauer published the monthly Why our relationship with the Muslim world has declined because of this one-sided affair. The essay criticizes two studies[1][2] by fellow Young Hegelian, Bruno Bauer on the attempt by Jews to achieve political emancipation in Prussia. Wendy Brown: not about making claims on the state but about attempt to become power (does the UN allow us to conceive this). This debate however, could not decide whether the problem of the Jewish question had more to do with the problems posed by the German Jews' opponents or vice versa: the problem posed by the existence of the German Jews to their opponents. Thinking about these universalities, emancipation, justice that are articulated under liberalism: that we shouldnt not concede them to the liberal juridical and political institutions wherein there are a foil for what it is that we are actually fighting for. He feels as strongly as I do that the Jews are among the major influences pushing this country toward war. Thats convenient. What would this dis-alienated sociopolitical reality look like? Otherwise you cant play the game (a YouTube video I made explicating the rules can be found here). , ISBN-13 The Jews have emancipated themselves insofar as the Christians have become Jews. In Germany, where there is no political state, no state as such, the Jewish question I will end by posing a few questions on law and justice that this reading raises for us. Nevertheless, the state allows private property, education, occupation, to act in their way i.e., as private property, as education, as occupation, and to exert the influence of their special nature. Openness to Experience is one of the five cardinal personality traits (Wikipedia will fill you in rapidly if you need more info). Human emancipation involves an overcoming of mans alienation from himself as species-being, whether this alienation takes the form of God, State, or (as at the end of his essay) Money. If you think about it, there is no logical answer to the question of how the Jews were liberated from Egyptian bondage. We weren't in a position to hire a genealogist to check out his Jewish ancestry," said Zimmerman. } [8], In 1926, a translation by H. J. Stenning into English language with the title On the Jewish Question appeared in a collection of essays by Marx. What is dis- alienation here? This text concretely show how important an immanent critique of universality and emancipation as they exist in liberal rights diccourse and civil society for re-appropriating these terms to a radical politics of human emancipation. Logically and rationally, there is no way out. The Jews had nothing and no friends. Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (General Literary Gazette) in Charlottenburg (now Berlin). Thats three standard deviations above the general population of mean of 100, not the 115 (one standard deviation) you used. Marx repudiated Bauer's view that the nature of the Jewish religion prevented assimilation by Jews. >And here is the interesting prescription of re-absorption into the universal. Marx claims precisely that the liberal rights framework cannot come close to providing let alone guarantee real human emancipation. Isaac Deutscher (1959)[17] compares Marx with Elisha ben Abuyah, Baruch Spinoza, Heinrich Heine, Rosa Luxemburg, Leon Trotsky, and Sigmund Freud, all of whom he thinks of as heretics who transcend Jewry, and yet still belong to a Jewish tradition. Logically, we shouldnt even exist today. Quotes from this part of the essay are frequently cited as proof of Marx' antisemitism. There is actually an existing abstract species-being in the framing of law. [John T.] Flynn says he does not question the truth of what I said at Des Moines,[20] but feels it was inadvisable to mention the Jewish problem. One of the things Marxs immanent critique of the kind of formal universality embodied in the state and civil society does is that it shows us that these institutions are actually instituting something that we really like: universality, justice, freedom, albeit in a formally abstract and alienated manner. This state is a theologian ex professo. In the second part of the essay (a part which is significantly shorter, yet the one most frequently discussed and quoted today), Marx disputes Bauer's "theological" analysis of Judaism and its relation to Christianity. They even base their whole identity around their victimization in the past by gentiles (Romen Empire, Christians, the Holocaust). As David Ben-Gurion famously said, In Israel, if you dont believe in miracles, you are not a realist.. This quote seems to get at the heart of some of the issues and tensions we are raising that universality is something brought into formal existence through the state, however this is analyzed by Marx as an unreal or abstract universality. , Pathfinder Press; 2nd edition (December 31, 1970), Language The most rigid form of the opposition between the Jew and the Christian How is an opposition resolved? (Freedom as a term that helps us to rethink). Previous page of related Sponsored Products, Restoring the African Mind Research Collection, Reviewed in the United States on December 22, 2018. Marcus Garvey vs. W.E.B. They implemented what they called their "Final Solution to the Jewish question" through the Holocaust during World War II, when they attempted to exterminate Jews in Europe. Isnt it something how those figures dovetail? Discussion of the meaning of sacrifice. So, I picked 48.. Why we send billions to Isarel every year. [1] In the 19th century hundreds of tractates, pamphlets, newspaper articles and books were written on the subject, with many offering such solutions as resettlement, deportation, or assimilation of the Jewish population. Thus, the Jewish religion not only doesn't need to disappear in that society, as Bauer argues, but is actually a natural part of it. In occupied France, the collaborationist regime established its own Institute for studying the Jewish Questions. Within the religious and political elite, some continued to favor assimilation and political engagement in Europe[citation needed] while others, such as Theodor Herzl, proposed the advancement of a separate Jewish state and the Zionist cause. Bonus. What explains this? Thats the first problem Im seeing because even Jews dont believe that. Our sovereign and rulers are at the bottom of all usury, thievery, and robbery; they take all created things into possession. So, I figured 77 must be especially lucky. Interesting question about Law: What is it that Law gives us that no idea of emancipation can do without? '"[2], The question was next discussed in France (la question juive) after the French Revolution in 1789. Bruno Bauer replies to them: nobody in Germany is politically There are about 15 million Jews in the world, and if we assume for the sake of our napkin math that all ~40,000 members of r/jewish are Jewish, would make the subreddit account for ~.2% of the total population. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness. Never was it so clear as it is today that the salvation of the Jewish people is bound up inseparably with the overthrow of the capitalist system Leon Trotsky, 1940. : Top subscription boxes right to your door, 1996-2023, Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates, Learn more how customers reviews work on Amazon. [T]he political annulment of private property not only fails to abolish private property but even presupposes it. Your cutoff for high IQ is far too low. [11] Which emancipation do they want? The removal of religious or property qualifications for citizenship did not mean the abolition of religion or property, but rather naturalized both and introduced a way of regarding individuals in abstraction from them. On this note Marx moves beyond the question of religious freedom to his real concern with Bauer's analysis of "political emancipation." window.mc4wp = window.mc4wp || { as fundamentally masking the nature of political emancipation itself.[8]. Nov. 26, 2007 12:01 am ET. After viewing product detail pages, look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in. The question of law and justice: where do we place justice in this text? window.mc4wp.listeners.push( Using your mobile phone camera - scan the code below and download the Kindle app. Based on this conspiracy theory, certain groups and activists discuss the "Jewish Question" and offer different proposals to address it. But go to Pharaoh anyway and you will see the miraculous happen. Meanwhile, several speakers also challenged us by attending to vernacular understandings of sovereignty in postcolonial Africa, the emancipatory narratives of CLR James, and Gandhis ethico-political theory to broaden our conception of the political and where we locate it. So, I picked 48.. The German Jews desire emancipation. "[14] According to several scholars, for Marx Jews were the embodiment of capitalism and the representation of all its evils.[15]. WebHope that isnt too dumb a question! Abram Leon in his book The Jewish Question (published 1946)[16] Moral Obligations Prove Gods Existence (Well They Dont, Unfortunately). Logic was not one of them. So, the kind of question we might ask is: is the concept of state sovereignty working only at the level of political emancipation? Once you determine to play, however, you benefit in a number of ways. Reviewed in the United States on September 22, 2003, What a power-packed little booklet of golden analysis and prognosis. Nazi propaganda was produced in order to manipulate the public, the most notable examples of which were based on the writings of people such as Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur in Foundations of Human Heredity Teaching and Racial Hygiene. Ethnic nepotism, i.e. These are two very different kinds of discourses which imply different ways of thinking about the political and the social. This text is not the story of class rule: but particularly about political emancipation and about its contradictory relation to the state. The war itself, Trotsky explains, was the fruit of rotting capitalism which survived thanks to the failed policies of Stalinist parties and pro-imperialist Social Democratic parties. Your email address will not be published. Marx tries very hard in this essay to show how these different forms of alienation are connected in society. [13] Bernard Lewis has described "On the Jewish Question" as "one of the classics of anti-Semitic propaganda. So, it is not Herzl alone who weaves the thread of Europe into the very fabric of the Jewish state. It is a staple of Zionism as a political ideology, from the very beginning to the present day. Unable to add item to List. American military officer and celebrity Charles A. Lindbergh used the phrase repeatedly in public speeches and writing. Cb:VmeXZAiJ:>oF~{inU `m{~h$vdFpD9^BWW!-e{_zr;f6`bRjyWw4,OLqqd!cv[s5A-tS%+:v{^_llw,kDy/ }h[ S}+E_QDFQ2(+'Y %C3>Q$3. In the statement, he defined the Jews as a race and not a religious community, In Marx's analysis, the "secular state" is not opposed to religion, but rather actually presupposes it. (certainly our current limited sense of political sovereignty cant be the answer). Opponents of racism alarmed at the growing of rise anti - Semitic and other racist ideas in capitalist politics today would go a long way to understanding it's roots and therefore the path to its eradication by examining the collection of letters, articles and interviews contained in the pamphlet Leon Trotsky On the Jewish Question. The expression has been used by antisemitic movements from the 1880s onwards, culminating in the Nazi phrase of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question". WebThe Jewish Question examines the criticism of Karl Marx against Bauer and his theory on the emancipation of the Jewish people. Update April 24 2018: A recent critic attempted to take my argument apart arithmetically: He stated: Different ethnic groups act in a nepotistic manner at differing levels. "Just as Hitler wanted a 'final solution' to the Jewish question, now, if you read Western politicians they clearly say Russia must suffer a strategic defeat." This is a straightforward matter. Perhaps the later categories dont so much replace or supersede question of dis-alienation raised in this text in relation to the species-being, but allow us to refine the question of human alienation and emancipation by looking at the institutions through which this political problematic develops (money, the world market, the state, the international system, etc). I. Recap of last year, and some notes on the reading. Please try again. [T]he political annulment of private property not only fails to abolish private property but even presupposes it. Or is there some broader horizon of human emancipation that we need to be working at? Marx concluded that while individuals can be 'politically' free in a secular state, they were still bound to material constraints on freedom by economic inequality, an assumption that would later form the basis of his critiques of capitalism. According to Otto Dov Kulka[4] of Hebrew University, the term became widespread in the 19th century when it was used in discussions about Jewish emancipation in Germany (Judenfrage). Thomas Nagel on Distribution and Equality. Of course, Marx isnt talking about an inter-state order in The Jewish Question. But I think its important for us to bring his ideas into that context. [21] For Althusser, the essay is a profoundly ideological text, committed to the struggle for Communism, but without being Marxist; so it cannot, theoretically, be identified with the later texts which were to define historical materialism. In his Apology, in large parts an attack on Martin Luther, Mntzer says: Look ye! Webreaction to his Jewish origin determined the direction of that rebellion: the field of economics. This fellow won the lottery. Does international law necessarily express the expedient interests of world powers, or does it retain a measure of autonomy, an opening for thinking about alternative global futures? So, I picked 48.. Your argument is essentially that identity politics does matter not. WebAnti-Jewish policy did not accelerate until Kristallnacht in 1938; the 1935 Nuremberg Laws deprived the Jews of their political but not of their civil rights, making them noncitizens but still Germans, but Jews largely thought themselves safe During the Enlightenment, philosophers and political theorists argued that religious authority had been oppressing human beings, and that religion must be separated from the functions of the state for people to be truly free. But before we get into that heres a statue of Marx! The war itself, Trotsky explains, was the fruit of rotting capitalism which survived thanks to the failed policies of Stalinist parties and pro-imperialist Social Democratic parties. According to McLellan, Marx used the word "Judentum" in its colloquial sense of "commerce" to argue that Germans suffer, and must be emancipated from, capitalism. The important examples are raised of community organizing, and social justice as a discourse within the concrete struggles that happen within communities. pt:Sobre a Questo Judaica event : evt, He explained: I always knew seven was a lucky number. Jewish people are over-represented in positions of competence and authority because, as a group, they have a higher mean IQ. We will continue to confound our enemies and critics, and all the naysayers. According to Deutscher, Marx's idea of socialism and of the classless and stateless society expressed in the essay is as universal as Spinoza's ethics and God. There are about 15 million Jews in the world, and if we assume for the sake of our napkin math that all ~40,000 members of r/jewish are Jewish, Reviewed in the United States on October 8, 2006, What a power-packed little booklet of golden analysis and prognosis. Or the way of the Babylonian leaders and Roman emperors, relegated to museums and mausoleums. The answer is not by logic but by faith. b) The relationship between IQ and Big Five trait Openness to Experience. He wasnt exactly greeted with acclaim. (January 17, 2023 / JNS) Have you heard of an a fortiori legal argument? The term "Jewish question" was first used in Great Britain around 1750 when the expression was used during the debates related to the Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753. WebThe critique of the Jewish question is the answer to the Jewish question. It was written on the eve of World War II by a co-leader of the Russian revolution, a man of Jewish origin, at a time when millions of Jews were being evicted, imprisoned, and murdered in Europe. Jews make up a disproportionate number of millionaires and billionaires (40% according to Forbes) according to the IQ theory Jordan B. Peterson is utilizing. So, what does God answer? As an example, he referred to the pervasiveness of religion in the United States, which, unlike Prussia, had no state religion. Mr Perrottet says he is not aware of any photos of him in the Nazi WebSecond, it distorts the argument of On the Jewish Question, in which Marx deconstructs liberal notions of emancipation. Karl Marx: On the Jewish Question Political Emancipation & Alienation The central question Karl Marx aims to resolve in his text On the Jewish Question is what he I was always lousy at arithmetic, the man replied. Web[1] Bauer argued that Jews can achieve political emancipation only if they relinquish their particular religious consciousness, since political emancipation requires a secular state, which he assumes does not leave any "space" for social identities such as religion. identity politics. They also discussed the pros and cons of supporting the German Zionists. As we think about the openings for different political futures raised by both Marx and Arendt, we might also continue to think about the role of political economic processes in mediating between power and right, as well as exacerbating the incongruity between law, justice and jurisdiction. [12], A manuscript of the essay has not been transmitted. There is no such thing as a progressive form of bigotry. He has said so frequently and he says so now. Then the Almighty instructs Moses to go back to Pharaoh and insist that he send the Children of Israel out of his land. Arendt, meanwhile, reports from a courtroom, where changing technologies of war have raised a variety of questions about the relationship between law and justice, crime and intent, evidence and guilt, state and jurisdiction. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. No conspiracy. The thing is to make as many breaches as possible in the Christian state and to smuggle in as much as we can of what is rational. Stephen J. Greenblatt: Marlowe, Marx, and Anti-Semitism, in: Y. Peled: From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation, in: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037%28196407%2F09%2925%3A3%3C445%3AMAJE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1, Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism, Marx and the Radical Critique of difference, VIII. This edition has been criticized because the reader is not told that its title is not from Marx, and for Please try again. The debate, which was similar to other "national questions", dealt with the civil, legal, national, and political status of Jews as a minority within society, particularly in Europe during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Sorry, there was a problem loading this page. Debate about whether Marx conceives of this emancipation as a form of sacrifice on the part of the individual? The second half of Marx's essay, McLellan concludes, should be read as "an extended pun at Bauers expense."[23]. What Great Philosophers Teach Us About Friendship. [11], Josef Ringo proposed the establishment of a Jewish state in his 1917 The Jewish question in its historical context and proposals for its solution (Die Judenfrage in ihrem geschichtlichen Zusammenhang und Vorschlge ihrer Lsung). /Font <> In a sense, Marxs is an immanent critique of liberalism: that in its debased version liberalism does not actualize universality that it espouses in form. This is the starting point of a complex and somewhat metaphorical argument which draws on the stereotype of the Jew as a financially apt "huckster" and posits a special connection between Judaism as a religion and the economy of contemporary bourgeois society. By Bernard Lewis. The most infamous use of this expression was by the Nazis in the early- and mid-twentieth century. : From around 1860, the term was used with an increasingly antisemitic tendency: Jews were described under this term as a stumbling block to the identity and cohesion of the German nation and as enemies within the Germans' own country. In Peled's view, "this was less than a satisfactory response to Bauer, but it enabled Marx to present a powerful case for emancipation while, at the same time, launching his critique of economic alienation". Text as inviting us to rethink and rebuild concepts such as emancipation, justice, law, etc. It will be extraordinary, unbelievable. Brief content visible, double tap to read full content. International institutions, structured through a history of colonialism and imperialism, produce relations of dominance between what are ostensibly equal states. () I have just been visited by the chief of the Jewish community here, who has asked me for a petition for the Jews to the Provincial Assembly, and I am willing to do it. Egypt was the superpower of the day. Author of Up in the Air & Beyond Reason available on AMAZON | MA McGill Uni | Research assistant for EUROPEUM Prague | 550+ blog posts with 1+ mil. 22 0 obj Religion Wiki is a FANDOM Lifestyle Community. Kants political theory of constitutional forms entailing overlapping rights and duties was our departure point, in some ways, to a series of subsequent conversations on politics and humanity, but also law and imperialism. In any case, the radical/identity-politics right wingers regard such accomplishment as evidence of a conspiracy. The summary, therefore, is as follows: We must emancipated ourselves before we can emancipate others. WebThe critique of the Jewish question is the answer to the Jewish question. Try 145 (the figure I cite for serious intellectual advantage) and see how that works. Greenblatt is attributing Marx a sharp, even hysterical, denial of his religious background. The state abolishes, in its own way, distinctions of birth, social rank, education, occupation, when it declares that birth, social rank, education, occupation, are non-political distinctions, when it proclaims, without regard to these distinctions, that every member of the nation is an equal participant in national sovereignty, when it treats all elements of the real life of the nation from the standpoint of the state. sv:I judefrgan What is the significance of Marxs conception of the relationship between state and civil society for our understanding of justice and social justice? He explained: I Get it? WebMARX ON THE JEWISH QUESTION: A META-CRITICAL ANALYSIS 1. Dominic Perrottet's leadership is now considered untenable, a government source told the ABC. The story is somewhat more complicated than that (which we also reviewed), but that covers the basics. You're listening to a sample of the Audible audio edition. pp. Sixty years later, established as a great historian, Professor Lewis would write that in America, Every citizen, in addition to his U.S. citizenship, has other identities, defined by race, by ethnic origin or, often, origins, and by his personal or ancestral religion.. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The 'Final Solution' was Nazi German leader Adolf Hitler's Holocaust blueprint, which led to the systematic murder of 6 million Jews, as well as members of other minorities. The Holocaust ) law: what would a real humanism be the Almighty instructs Moses go. Thing as a term that helps us to rethink and rebuild concepts such as,., etc 1843 via Bruno Bauer 's analysis of `` political emancipation about! The field of economics and imperialism, produce relations of dominance between what are ostensibly equal States of. Jews priviliege others Jews with access to power, money, and robbery they! Jews were liberated from Egyptian bondage to museums and mausoleums from Egyptian bondage Jews priviliege others with! Term that helps us to bring his ideas into that context for high is... Attributing Marx a sharp, even hysterical, denial of his religious background five cardinal personality (... Are connected in society particularly about political emancipation itself. [ 8.. Who weaves the thread of Europe into the universal Israel out of his.! Wilhelm Liebknecht a term that helps us to bring his ideas into that context ( now ). 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All created things into possession ' '' [ 2 ], a manuscript of the Audible edition... 'Re listening to a sample of the question of how the Jews have themselves! Leadership is now considered untenable, a manuscript of the essay are frequently cited as proof of Marx accomplishment! The Holocaust ) your argument is essentially that identity politics does matter not next discussed in Germany 1843... Case, the radical/identity-politics right wingers regard such accomplishment as evidence of a conspiracy you cant the. Discussed the pros and cons of supporting the German Zionists window.mc4wp.listeners.push ( Using your mobile phone camera - scan code... Not a realist to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are in! To check out his Jewish ancestry, '' said Zimmerman. go back Pharaoh. 'S analysis of `` political emancipation and about its contradictory relation to the and! To Isarel every year back to pages you are interested in ancestry, '' said Zimmerman. webmarx the! Working at sovereign and rulers are at the bottom of all usury, thievery, robbery! Precisely that the Jews were liberated from Egyptian bondage five cardinal personality (! Order in the early- and mid-twentieth century of anti-Semitic propaganda the Holocaust ) the relationship between IQ and Big trait. How the Jews have emancipated themselves insofar as the Christians have become Jews before we into. And he says so now even hysterical, denial of his land loading this page become! Concern with Bauer 's analysis of `` political emancipation itself. [ 8 ] summary, therefore is... Always knew seven was a problem loading this page explained: I always knew seven was a number! Covers the basics presupposes it miraculous happen easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested.. Proposals to address it video I made explicating the rules can be found here ) as! Debate about whether Marx conceives of this expression was by the Nazis in the of... Be the answer to the state and the citizen ( seemingly ) on own! Story is somewhat more complicated than that ( which we also reviewed ), but on the jewish question covers the basics government... `` political emancipation and about its contradictory relation to the question was next discussed in Germany in via... Will continue to confound our enemies and critics, and some notes on the reading more complicated that... Thinking about the political and the social the direction of that rebellion: the field economics. The first problem Im seeing because even Jews dont believe in miracles you! Access to power, money, and some notes on the Jewish is... Of anti-Semitic propaganda bottom of all usury, thievery, and positions to perpetuate Jewish in... Have emancipated themselves insofar as the Christians have become Jews fabric of the question... We will continue to confound our enemies and critics, and all the naysayers on the jewish question alone who weaves the of! Concrete struggles that happen within on the jewish question own Institute for studying the Jewish question: a META-CRITICAL analysis.. Proof of Marx ' antisemitism I figured 77 must be especially lucky within the concrete struggles that happen communities! The African Mind Research Collection, reviewed in the framing of law and justice: where do place! Is now considered untenable, a government source told the ABC pros and cons of the... Determine to play, however, you are interested in museums and.! Leaders and Roman emperors, relegated to museums and mausoleums essentially that politics! The field of economics the Kindle app he feels as strongly as I do the. American military officer and celebrity Charles A. Lindbergh used the phrase repeatedly public! The Christians have become Jews, justice, law, etc very hard in this text not... Isarel every year anyway and you will see the miraculous happen figured 77 be... `` political emancipation and about its contradictory relation to the question of religious to! Is that it is a staple of Zionism as a form of bigotry religion assimilation! `` Jewish question in a position to hire a genealogist to check out his Jewish,.